Religion and Religious Dynamics in Age of Empires II Civilizations [Part I]

Civilization geography and architecture are two commonly discussed topics on Reddit and the AoE2-related forums. But given the presence of monks in the game, I thought it would be interesting to shed some light on the interactions between various faiths and religions that shaped the medieval world. These interactions form the basis for AoE2 wonders, civilizations, architectures, and even unique units. Religion was often spread by the sword as well as the pen, and the cultural and societal impact cannot be understated.

Notes:

• As far as I could, I limited this analysis to the strict time period of the civilization within the game. This got hairy at times, especially with older civilizations like the Huns that didn’t leave a written record, but for the most part AoE2 civilizations exist within pretty well-delineated time periods.

• Associating AoE2 buildings to real-life counterparts wasn’t an exact science, and in some cases I had to use a bit of guesswork. The Frankish wonder, for example, could have been based on any of several similar-looking Gothic-style cathedrals scattered across Europe and even America.

• Sources/further reading materials are linked at the end of each entry. I tried to avoid obviously biased sources as much as I could, which is tough when the topic is as controversial as religion.

• Feel more than free to correct any of this if necessary.

Aztecs

• Chief religion(s): The Nahua religion, a polytheistic faith practiced by the Nahuatl-speaking peoples of central Mexico since roughly the 7th century when the Toltecs rose to power in the region. The Aztec religion recognized a large pantheon of several gods representing various forces of nature (who were kept satiated with constant human sacrifice), and was part of all levels of Aztec government and society. Chief among them was Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent deity and god of the heavenly winds whose worship long predated the Aztec and Toltec peoples in Central America. Sacrifice was an important theme in Aztec religion; priests took a vow of celibacy upon entering the faith, and would routinely perform bloodletting upon themselves as a harsh form of self-sacrifice. Through a combination of forced conversions, widespread destruction of Aztec temples, and the efforts of Spanish missionaries, the Nahua religion entered into a permanent decline following the fall of Tenochtitlan. Although the faith did not survive the subsequent Spanish rule, elements of the religion are still part of cultural practices and traditions in Central America today.

• Time period in the game: Early 1500s, before the introduction of Catholicism to the Americas (Montezuma campaign).

• Background: The Templo Mayor was the largest Nahua religious monument of the Aztecs, jointly dedicated to Tlaloc (god of the rains and earthly fertility) and Huitzilopochtli (the god of war). This architectural theme of duality, in which two staircases lead to two temples dedicated to two gods, was common in Aztec architecture and can be seen in the Aztec castle as well as its wonder. The structure of the temple is meant to evoke the Hill of Coatepec, the location of Huitzilopochtli's birth as per Aztec myth. Famous as one of the major sites of ritual human sacrifice during Aztec rule, the temple was razed by the Spanish in the 16th century and a cathedral was built atop its ruins in Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City).

Further reading: Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism

Berbers

• Chief religion(s): Sunni Islam, introduced to the Maghreb in the 7th century from the Umayyad caliphate in Arabia. Previously under the rule of the Byzantine Empire, the early Berbers were quickly converted to Islam (from Judeo-Christianity/various pagan faiths) following the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 700s. Kaecilius, leader of a large confederacy of Christian Berber tribes, resisted the Arab invasion of the Maghreb for a time, but was ultimately killed at the Battle of Mamma in 690. Kahina, a Jewish Berber queen, took up the struggle against the Arabs but was killed in 703 by an army under Musa bin Nusayr, general of the Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I. Even by the time of Tariq ibn Ziyad, minorities of Christians and polytheists still remained in the Maghreb. In addition, the Berber tribes still retained a distinct ethnic and linguistic identity, continuing to practice traditional pagan rituals following the decline of Arab power. Complete Arabization of the region would not occur until several centuries later.

• Time period in the game: 8th century, Tariq ibn Ziyad (Berber general during the Umayyad invasion of the Visigothic kingdom) / 11th century Almoravids fighting against El Cid (technically Saracens).

• Background: The Hassan Tower was constructed in the 12th century during the suzerainty of the Almohad caliphate in North Africa (successor state to the Almoravid Berbers). Built in Rabat, Morocco, the tower is the older of the two Almohad-constructed Wonders (the other being the Torre Del Oro in Spain) and was intended to be the central minaret of a mosque that was never built. Had it been completed, the mosque may have looked like the Koutoubia mosque, and would have stood as the 2nd-largest mosque in the Islamic world after the mosque of Samarra in Iraq.

Further reading: Islam and Society - Formation in Morocco, Past and Present

Britons

• Chief religion(s): Catholicism first gained a foothold in England in the early 600s, gradually displacing 'Celtic Christianity' (an amalgam of early Christianity and native pagan rituals), and strengthened its grip on the area for the next several centuries. Pagan-ism was re-introduced to the island during the Norse invasions; however, the arriving Scandinavians who settled there were soon assimilated and became Christian as well. Monastic cathedral communities were the norm among Anglo-Saxons, and the majority of churches in England were controlled by monks during medieval times. Following the invasion of William of Normandy, several 'new' orders were introduced to England, including the Cluniac order of France as well as the Cistercians and Augustinians. However, the Britons are an over-arching representative of medieval England and medieval Wales, and in the latter area Welsh Christianity persisted until the Norman conquest of the area in the 11th century, after which the Welsh also submitted to the Archbishop of Canterbury.

• Time period in the game: 1066 (Battle of Hastings), ~1300 (antagonists in the William Wallace campaign), 15th century (antagonists in the Joan of Arc campaign), and various other cameos.

• Background: Although not in Britain, the Aachen Cathedral is a massive Catholic cathedral built in 814 during the reign of Charlemagne. The Palantine chapel, located at the heart of the cathedral, was the traditional location of coronation for the German kings of the Middle Ages, conducted upon the throne of Charlemagne himself. The Britons (Western European) church is a generic representative of Carolingian architecture, an architectural style common in France/western Germany through the 9th century.

Further reading: Paganism to Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England

Burmese

• Chief religion(s): Orthodox Buddhism (Theravada) was heavily promoted throughout the Toungoo Empire, and had long been the dominant religion in Upper and Central Burma. The older Pagan empire, while patronizing Theravada Buddhism, had also been home to adherents of Hinduism, Mahayana Buddhism, and other unorthodox animist practices. Under the reign of Bayinnaung, Buddhism monasteries and pagodas were heavily patronized, while an orthodox form of Sinhalese Buddhism remained the official religion of the empire and gradually supplanted other faiths. Bayinnaung himself ruled as the Cakkavati, a Pali term referring to the 'universal ruler' in faiths of Indian origin. The other groups in the area, including the Mon kings of Hanthawaddy and Ava kingdoms, had adopted Theravada Buddhism as well. Animist and tribal rituals continued to be practiced in outlying areas, including traditional nat (spirit) worship. Note: The Burmese also draw slight influence from the Kangleipak kingdom (modern-day Manipur) through the Arambai unique unit and 'Manipur cavalry' tech. The Meitei people of the Manipur kingdom often fought the Burmese, and would have chiefly adhered to Sanamahi Laining before the 18th century.

• Time period in the game: 1550s (Bayinnaung campaign)

• Background: The Shwezigon pagoda, built during the Pagan dynasty in Nyang-U, was (and still is) one of the largest and holiest Buddhist stupas in Burma. Built during the Pagan dynasty, the pagoda is said to house a single tooth of Siddharta Gautama. The pagoda would not have been gold/copper-plated at the time it was built by King Anwarahta in 1044, following his conversion to Buddhism and founding of the Pagan dynasty. Completion and consecration of the temple was conducted by Anwarahta's son Kyansittha. According to local fable, the site for the pagoda was chosen by a white elephant bearing a tooth of Siddhartha Gautama.

Further reading: Rise and Fall of the Southeast Asian “Charter” Kingdoms

Byzantines

• Chief religion(s): Greek Orthodox Christianity, first adopted by Constantine the Great in the 4th century AD and later made the official state religion of the theocratic Byzantine Empire. For nearly 700 years afterwards, Constantinople was considered the center of 'Christendom', and played an important role in the evangelization of the Bulgarian, Slavic and Lithuanian peoples. The Emperor of Byzantium was considered a conduit for God's will, and as such played an active role in papal/Church-related affairs. Following prolonged war with the Persians, the loss of North Africa and Syria to the Arabs, and the schism of Catholicism and Orthodox Christianity, the influence of the Byzantines began to decline. The Turkification of Anatolia in the 14th century meant that by the fall of Constantinople, the center of authority in the Orthodox Church had shifted to Eastern Europe.

• Time period in the game: 5th century (antagonist in the Attila the Hun campaign) to 11th century (antagonists in the Battle of Manzikert scenario).

• Background: The Church of Holy Wisdom, built in 537, was the seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople (spiritual leader of the followers of Eastern Orthodoxy) for nearly a millennium, and served as the traditional coronation location of the Byzantine emperors. It was the world's largest cathedral until the 16th century, and is emblematic of the zenith of Byzantine architecture. The weight of the enormous dome proved a sticking point during construction, and the dome would collapse multiple times over the years until its final redesign by the Armenian architect Trdat in 989. While the in-game Middle Eastern mosque does not technically fit the Byzantines, it should be noted that certain architectural features of Byzantine churches (domed ceilings, multiple arches) heavily influenced the design of early mosques in Arabia, including the Dome of the Rock. Warsmithy's Byzantine architecture set features terrific examples of Greek Orthodox churches.

Further reading: A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Warren T. Treadgold

Celts

• Chief religion(s): Christianity was introduced to the Scots in the 5th century during the Roman occupation of Britain, and gradually supplanted polytheistic Celtic paganism over the following centuries. St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, was one of several missionaries who introduced the Christian faith to Scotland and Ireland during the 5th century in his capacity as the Archbishop of Armagh. Celtic Christianity followed several unorthodox traditions (notably a delayed Easter feast) until the 7th century, and was even deemed heretical by St. Augustine of Hippo and other Christian scholars for its emphasis on the idea that people were inherently good and virtuous, contradicting the doctrine of Original Sin. Christianity in Scotland exhibited a strong monastic tradition, even after attempts by the Normans to standardize liturgical practices and eliminate remaining Druidic traditions. By the 13th century, Catholicism from England had spread across Scotland as well; not until the 16th century did the Scottish church break from the Papacy during the Protestant Reformation sweeping through Europe at the time.

• Time period in the game: 13th century (William Wallace campaign).

• Background: The Rock of Cashel was traditionally the abode of the High Kings of Ireland for much of the 12th century. Although the building contained a chapel, it originally served as a defensive fortress for the Kings of Munster. Said chapel was constructed by an Irish Benedictine abbot, shortly after the 'Rock' was donated to the Catholic Church by Murtagh O' Brien.

Further reading: Looking Back, Looking Forward: The Celts and Europe

Chinese

• Chief religion(s): Han theology/Tibetan Buddhism, with heavy Taoist influences. Beginning in the 1st century, Buddhism was introduced to China by missionaries from India and merged with existing Chinese faiths/rituals to a certain degree in the years that followed. Following the significant suppression of Buddhism towards the end of the Tang dynasty, Taoism and revived Neo-Confucianism flourished as schools of philosophy in China. Major themes of Confucian philosophy, including filial piety and other concepts explored in the Analects, were incorporated into the Song's civil service examination system. Meanwhile, there was a high degree of syncretism of Taoist spiritual teachings with Han folk religion, and under the Song dynasty Taoism enjoyed state sponsorship while Buddhism became stagnant. Under the subsequent Yuan (Mongol) dynasty, however, Tibetan Buddhism rose to dominance in China as well, having been brought into China from the Mongol-ruled Tibetan heartlands. Mongke Khan, leader of the Mongol empire during the 13th century, heavily patronized Buddhism and exempted the Buddhist clergy from taxation. His successor Kublai Khan would convert to Buddhism, and subsequently send missionaries to Manchuria, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and other surrounding kingdoms.

• Time period in the game: Chiefly Song dynasty, 900s - 1200s (antagonist in the Genghis Khan campaign). However, as a pan-Chinese civilization, the Chinese nominally span from the 7th to the 16th century.

• Background: The Temple of Heaven is the center of an immense Beijing imperial Taoist temple complex built during the Ming dynasty in the 15th century. The Ming Emperor would traditionally perform ancestor worship, a mainstay of Confucianism and Chinese tradition, within the temple. More notably, the temple also contained the Hall of Prayer For Good Harvest, where the Emperor would test his 'divine mandate' by praying for a good harvest season. The architecture of the circular, triple-gabled building was meant to serve as a conduit between heaven and Earth for the Chinese kings, and was not open to anyone but the Emperor and his personal retinue.

Further reading: Syncretism of Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism during the Song period

Ethiopians

• Chief religion(s): Coptic Christianity (Tewahedo) was the primary faith of the Ethiopian people since the introduction of Christianity to North-East Africa in the 4th century and its subsequent patronage by King Ezana of Axum. His conversion was orchestrated by St. Frumentius, a captured slave from Tyre who gained the favor of the Ethiopian king and was Ezana's childhood mentor. Heavily influenced by Judaism to a greater degree than other Oriental Orthodox branches, Tewahedo remained the religion of the Aksumites even as the rise of Islam and the near-eradication of Christianity from North Africa and the Lower Nile led to the relative isolation of Aksum from the Islamic world. In 960, a warrior queen named in Ethiopian lore as Yodit furthered the decline of the empire by plundering monuments and destroying numerous Christian churches; however, her exact identity and motives remain unclear even today.

• Time period in the game: Yodit is thought to have ruled in Ethiopia during the 10th century.

• Background: The Bet Amanuel in Lalibela, built during the Aksumite dynasty, is a classic example of Ethiopian rock-hewn church architecture. Designed to mimic the appearance of wood/stone layers in traditional above-ground buildings, churches of this style were built with alternating bands of recessed rock, were usually located beneath tall columns known as stelae and often housed tombs containing the bodies of pilgrims. Unlike rock-hewn churches, stelae are thought to predate the arrival of Christianity in Ethiopia. Meanwhile, the monastery used for the Ethiopians as part of the African architecture set is actually based on the Larabanga Mosque built in West Africa, and bears no resemblance to Aksumite churches.

Further reading: The Queen of the Habasha in Ethiopian History, Tradition and Chronology

Franks

• Chief religion(s): Catholicism had long held sway in France since 496, when Clovis I converted to Christianity and established an alliance with the papacy. In the 8th century, with the Umayyad caliphate making inroads into Europe and no help forthcoming from a besieged Constantinople, Pope Gregory III appointed Frankish king Charles Martel protector of the Holy See. Having just emerged victorious in a bloody civil war for the throne of the Franks, Martel would go on to defeat the Caliphate's forces at Tours in what is considered one of the most important battles in Christian and Western European history. Martel would subsequently fight several battles against various Saxon tribes - the Saxons would continue to resist conversion until the Massacre of Verden in 782 at the hands of Charlemagne. During the Hundred Years' War centuries later, Joan of Arc rose to prominence as an ardent Catholic who claimed to have received visions of Saint Margaret and Saint Michael and was able to gain the favor of a desperate King Charles VII.

• Time period in the game: 8th century (Battle of Tours), 15th century (Joan of Arc campaign).

• Background: France's wonder is a mix of two different Roman Catholic cathedrals built in Bordeaux and Chartres. Both were built during the 13th century, and both served as the seat of the Archbishop of Bordeaux and the bishop of Chartres, respectively. The cathedrals were built according to Gothic architectural principles, which evolved from those of Romanesque architecture and rose to prominence in Western Europe during the High Middle Ages. Meanwhile, the Franks' (Western European) church is a generic representative of Carolingian architecture, an architectural style common in France/western Germany through the 9th century.

Further reading: History of the Catholic Church in France (Wikipedia)

Goths

• Chief religion(s): During the 4th century (roughly around the time of Alaric I's birth) a priest of Greek descent named Ulfilas journeyed east of the Danube to where the Goths had settled, having migrated there from further east. There, Ulfilas' efforts led to the adoption of Arianism, an unorthodox interpretation of Christianity that did not believe in the traditional doctrine of the Holy Trinity, by Alaric I and the Gothic peoples. Although Arianism had by then been declared heretical by Constantine the Great, it would remain the primary faith of the Visigoths for over a century. Following the establishment of the Visigothic Kingdom in Spain and numerous conflicts with the Catholic Basque and Hispanic populations, King Recarred I converted to Nicean Christianity around ~600 AD in a bid to unify the Iberian peninsula. His nobles and bishops followed suit, and by the 7th century the Visigothic Kingdom on Toledo had fully adopted Catholicism.

• Time period in the game: 5th century (Alaric, King of the Goths campaign), 8th century (antagonists in the Tariq ibn Ziyad campaign).

• Background: The Mausoleum of Theodoric serves no religious purpose, while the default Eastern European church shares no association with the Goths.

Further reading: Early Visigothic Christianity

Huns

• Chief religion(s): The Huns were thought to be adherents of Tengri-ism, a polytheistic faith with elements of animism practiced by the steppe peoples of Central Asia (including the early Turkic peoples, the Bulgars, and later the Mongols). Tengri-ism involved the worship of spirits of nature, and governed the Hunnic burial practice of interring graves near rivers with large ritualistic cauldrons. By Attila's time, many Huns had adopted the religions of Eastern Europe as well, and the Hunnic Empire would have featured adherents of Roman Catholicism/Orthodoxy, Arianism, and various other Germanic/pagan cults. While the Hunnic peoples were absorbed and assimilated in Eastern Europe following Attila's death, Tengri-ism would survive in Central Asia.

• Time period in the game: 5th century (Attila the Hun campaign).

• Background: The Hunnic wonder (a looted/plundered Arch of Constantine) serves no religious purpose, while the default Eastern European church shares no association with the Huns.

Further reading: Barbarism and Religion: Volume 6

Incas

• Chief religion(s): The Incan religion was a polytheistic faith centered in Cuzco, the sacred city of the Incan people, and derived from early traditions of star/planet worship belonging to the Andean tribes scattered across the area of modern-day Peru. Coricancha, a large and diverse temple complex in Cuzco, was dedicated to the sun God Inti, while the creator god Viracocha was said to have built Cuzco with his own bare hands after creating the Earth and the stars. Ancestor worship was an important facet of the religion, and the bodies of important leaders were often mummified. Following the downfall of the Incas, the temple complexes in Cuzco were abandoned as Spanish troops destroyed the lineage of the Sapa Inca and Jesuit missionaries sought to supplant the Incan gods. Pizarro and his forces facilitated the destruction of Incan temples and idols, and with Cuzco all but abandoned, the native peoples of South America adopted Christianity relatively quickly.

• Time period in the game: 16th century (El Dorado campaign)

• Background: The Incan wonder bears resemblance to the Temple of the Sun atop Macchu Pichu, and features the network of irregular stone block construction typical of Incan architecture. Originally run by priests in charge of the cult of Inti, the temple complex escaped pillage by the Spanish for many years due to its secretive location and restricted access, and today serves as a tourist attraction, having fallen into disrepair.

Further reading: History, Historical Record, and Ceremonial Action: Incas and Spaniards in Cuzco

Indians

Note: The in-game Indian civilization is pan-northern Indian, and represents the Ghorid/Mamluk Sultanate in Delhi and northern India as well as the Hindu Agnivanshi Rajput kingdoms in western and central India .

• Chief religion(s): Primarily Hinduism, with fast-rising Islamic influence and declining Buddhist influence. During the 12th century, India was caught up in conflicts between various Rajput clans (Chauhans, Chalukyas, Paramaras, and Pratiharas) who feuded with each other as well as with the Ghaznavid and Ghurid sultanates to the west. These battles intensified following Prithviraj III's defeat at the Second Battle of Tarain, and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate by Muhammad Ghor. Many of the sultans did not recognize Hinduism, and frequently destroyed/looted Hindu temples in efforts to consolidate power. During this tumultuous time period, Hinduism underwent a reformation as a result of the Bhakti movement, spearheaded by Ramanuja in the 11th century. The reformation streamlined Hindu philosophy, and moved away from abstract philosophical concepts of the Brahman towards more accessible devotional practices. Meanwhile, Buddhism entered a period of decline due to several factors. Many Buddhists in present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan fled to Tibet during the reign of the Ghaznavids, and Buddhism was all but eradicated from the area during the subsequent invasions of Genghis Khan. The destruction of Nalanda and Odantapuri by Muhammad bin Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate further exacerbated this decline. However, Buddhism in India had already begun its downswing before the 12th century; many Buddhist concepts were absorbed by Hinduism during the aforementioned Bhakti reformation, and patronage of Buddhist universities and monasteries had greatly decreased from its height during the Gupta and Pala empires, relegating Buddhism to a narrowed and esoteric role in Indian society. The exact nature of Buddhism's near-disappearance from India is still a matter of debate.

• Time period in the game: 12th century (Prithviraj III campaign).

• Background: The Indians have had multiple wonders in the game. The Brihadishwara temple was built in Thanjavur during the 11th century by the Chola dynasty in southern India. The buildings that make up the Shiva temple complex are an example of Dravidian architecture during the classical period, and include shrines dedicated to Ganesha, Kartikeya, and several other Hindu gods. The temple is noteworthy in that it features a very tall vimana (central tower). The Indian monastery, meanwhile, is based on the Konark Sun Temple in Odisha, dedicated to the Hindu god of the sun (Surya) and built during the 13th century. Tzontlimixtli's previous architecture set featured a massive gopuram reminiscent of the Virupaksha temple in Hampi, built during the 15th century by Raja Devaraya II of the Vijayanagara empire. Previous wonders also included the Gol Gumbaz and the Taj Mahal, famous examples of Indo-Islamic architecture from the 16th century that nevertheless served as mausoleums and had no inherent religious purpose.

Further reading: The Rajputs in the History of Hindustan, Hindu-Muslim Identities in Pre-Colonial India

Italians

• Chief religion(s): Catholicism. Following the collapse of the Ostrogothic kingdom, Italy was occupied by various Germanic tribes. These tribes would band together at times during conflict with various outside threats, but more often than not remained as separate entities. At the time of Francesco Sforza, Italy was divided into several Papal states. Although the Catholic Pope was nominally the leader of the states, in practice his influence was remote and real power lay in the hands of the vicars who controlled the affairs of each city. This state of affairs led to the Italian Wars, during which Pope Julius II struggled to keep France at bay while dealing with the increasing belligerence of the Kingdom of Venice. His predecessors, Pope Sixtus IV and Pope Nicholas V, were responsible for rebuilding Rome and returning it to glory during the Italian Renaissance. It was during this time that religious dissidents such as Girolamo Savonarola, dis-satisfied with the political squabbles of the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire, began to lay the seeds for what would become the protestant Reformation. However, Savonarola’s calls for the destruction of idols and statues in churches fell on deaf ears, and he was soon hanged in Florence for heresy.

• Time period in the game: 15th century (Sforza campaign)

• Background: The Genoa Cathedral of St. Lawrence was consecrated by Pope Gelasius II in 1118, and soon after served as the seat of the Archbishop of Genoa. It is the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in Genoa, and was reconstructed in its characterizing Gothic "layer-cake" style following a ruinous fire in 1296. The gilded stucco that can be seen in the game was actually not added until the 17th century. The church is said to stand atop the ashes of Saint Givanni Batista, the patron saint of Genoa who was laid to rest in the city following the First Crusade. Meanwhile, the Italian/Portuguese monastery is based off of Santo Stefano, a small Romanesque church in Genoa consecrated in 972.

Further reading: The Immortal Republic: The Myth of Venice during the Italian Wars

Japanese

• Chief religion(s): Zen Buddhism (Mahayana) was a major school of Buddhism with significant Taoist influences introduced to Japan during the 13th century. Two schools of Zen, Rinzai and Soto, were brought to Japan by Chinese monks during this time, and the former school flourished during the rule of the Ashikaga shogunate. Traditionally, the school of Zen placed less emphasis on ritual dogma than its mainstream counterparts in the Asian mainland, while promoting individual spiritualization as the way to self-enlightenment. Kinkaku-ji, one of the largest and most popular Buddhist temples in Japan, was built in Kyoto during this period. Within the temple, several statues of shaka Buddha (the historical Buddha) surround a seated kannon Bodhisattva (the bodhisattva of mercy). Zen maintained a balance with Shinto, the traditional religion of Japan based on rituals of spirit and ancestor worship. Many Buddhist temples were themselves housed within Shinto shrines, and efforts were made to reconcile Buddhist teachings of the Bodhisattva-ideal and the meditative practices associated with Zen with the collection of native beliefs and kami mythology associated with Shinto.

• Time period in the game: 16th century (Battle of Yamazaki), 12th century (Battle of Kurikara)

• Background: The Todai-ji temple is one of seven ancient Buddhist temples built in Nara between the 6th and 8th centuries, marking the time where Buddhism was adopted as a state religion in Japan. The complex is situated around a Daibutsu, a 50-foot tall bronze statue of the Buddha (the construction of which consumed nearly all of Japan's bronze production for several years), and survived multiple earthquakes and natural disasters in the years following its completion. Records show that in 752, an Indian priest hailing from Lumbini journeyed to Japan and 'dedicated' the statue by painting in its eyes. The grounds surrounding the main temple hall were populated with spotted deer, considered messengers to the Gods in Shinto tradition. In addition, the default East Asian monastery is distinctly Japanese in nature (as evidenced by the presence of chigi and katsuogi as roof supports, two architectural features not commonly seen in mainland Asia).

Further reading: Religion and Zen Buddhism in Medieval Japan

Khmer

• Chief religion(s): Primarily Shaivite Hinduism, followed by Buddhism. Present-day Cambodia was subject to heavy influence from South India (particularly the Pallava dynasty) beginning in the 4th century, around the time Hinduism and Buddhism were adopted by the Khmer peoples. Early in the 9th century, Jayavarman II ascended to power in northern Cambodia as the first devaraja (God-King) of the Khmer Empire. Shaivite Hinduism was established as the royal religion, and successive rulers of the Khmer Empire would adopt the Sanskrit title of Chakravartin, 'universal ruler'. During the 11th century, Suryavarman I consolidated power as king of the Khmer and formed an alliance with the Chola dynasty of southern India, another Shaivite Hindu kingdom. His son Suryavarman II would build Angkor Wat, the largest Hindu temple complex in the world, while expanding the borders of the kingdom and engaging in repeated conflicts with the Champa in southern Vietnam. Following Suryavarman's death, the Cham would strike back and recapture Angkor, and the city would not be liberated until the 13th century by Jayavarman VII. Jayavarman was a follower of Mahayana Buddhism, which coexisted with Hinduism in the region, and he and his son would build and patronize many Buddhist temples in the region even as the power of the Khmer dynasty began to wane. Subsequent to these events was the introduction and rapid adoption of Theravada Buddhism, which came to the region from Sri Lanka, was patronized by Sri-Indravarman at the start of the 14th century, and gradually supplanted Hinduism as the religion of the Khmer. Today, it is thought that the widespread adoption of Theravada Buddhism and the de-stabilization of the devaraja dynastic lineage marked the end of the Khmer Empire's zenith.

• Time period in the game: 12th century (Suryavarman campaign)

• Background: Angkor Wat, built during the reign of Suryavarman II in the 12th century, stood as the largest Hindu temple on Earth following its completion. The size and structure of the complex represented the zenith of the 'temple-mountain' style of Khmer architecture, and was meant to represent Mount Meru, the spiritual abode of the gods in Vedic Hinduism. The temple was dedicated to Lord Vishnu, and carvings etched in the walls depict scenes from the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. Starting in the 13th century with the reign of Jayavarman VII, the structure was re-purposed as a Buddhist temple, and remains one today. The Southeast Asian monastery, meanwhile, seems to blend Khmer and Indonesian temple styles, perhaps a conscious decision on the part of Jorgito who designed the SEA architectural set.

Further reading: Angkor Wat: Hinduism, Politics and Prestige in the Khmer Empire

Part II with the rest of the civs coming shortly (because I hit Reddit's character limit :( )